A search for high-mass dimuon resonance production in association with one or more b quark jets is presented. The study uses proton-proton collision data collected with the CMS detector at the LHC corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 138 fb−1−1 at a center-of-mass energy of 13 TeV. Model-independent limits are derived on the number of signal events with exactly one or more than one b quark jet. Results are also interpreted in a lepton-flavor-universal model with Z′ boson couplings to a bb quark pair (gbb), an sb quark pair (gbbδbsbs), and any same-flavor charged lepton (gℓℓ) or neutrino pair (gνν), with |gνν| = |gℓℓ|. For a Z′ boson with a mass mZ′mZ′ = 350 GeV (2 TeV) and |δbsbs| < 0.25, the majority of the parameter space with 0.0057 < |gℓℓ| < 0.35 (0.25 < |gℓℓ| < 0.43) and 0.0079 < |gbb| < 0.46 (0.34 < |gbb| < 0.57) is excluded at 95% confidence level. Finally, constraints are set on a Z′ model with parameters consistent with low-energy b → sℓℓ measurements. In this scenario, most of the allowed parameter space is excluded for a Z′ boson with 350 < mZ′mZ′ < 500 GeV, while the constraints are less stringent for higher mZ′mZ′ hypotheses. This is the first dedicated search at the LHC for a high-mass dimuon resonance produced in association with multiple b quark jets, and the constraints obtained on models with this signature are the most stringent to date.